Management Portfolio Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 5

Management Portfolio - Essay Example The Safety Management System shall include policies and procedures on risk assessment and analysis and provisions for safety audits. The Quality Management section outlines the principles which project managers shall abide by in the conduct of the projects’ execution. Quality management is conducted with a view to aligning operations activities and results with the needs and demands of the customers. Project Management refers to the execution of project plans per site. It involves the internal coordination and workings among the various elements of the project, and coordination between project managers and the immediate environment (the community and local government). Operations Management refers to the coordination among the various projects and liaison between the projects and the firm. It is linked with the Financial and Commercial Management aspects of the project, in that it keeps an eye towards the cost-versus-benefits aspect of the project execution. The project management will embody the regulations of Statutory Instrument 1996 No. 1592, otherwise known as The Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996, as well as internationally accepted principles of health, safety and welfare management. Pertinent provisions of said Instrument are hereunder adopted, as follows: As a matter of policy, management assumes responsibility for instituting health and safety facilities during the project actualization, and for implementing safety standards over all persons and processes involved in the project. Management expects every employee to comply with safety rules and processes implemented during project execution. In project sites, including ingress thereto and egress therefrom, it shall be ensured that such will be free from potential hazards to any persons, as far as is reasonably practicable. Measures shall be adopted to ensure that no person gains access to any place within the project

Business Legal Environmen(230) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Legal Environmen(230) - Essay Example It also develops certainty in the rule of law because the precedents determine outcomes of cases. The doctrine also promotes flexibility in the rule of law by allowing judges to avoid existing precedents and establish new ones. It however also faces disadvantages such as uncertainty because of the wide scope of precedents and judges ability to deviate from a precedent. It also makes the judicial process rigid and it lacks the primary backing of the constitution (Meiners, Ringleb and Edwards, 10). One of the differences between criminal law and civil law is that civil law relates to private rights of members of the society and regulates relationships between private persons, whether natural or artificial, while criminal law relates to public rights against the state and therefore regulates the relationship between the state and citizens. Penalties to offences also define a difference between criminal and civil law. Criminal law induces imprisonment and fine penalties while civil law induces equitable remedies for losses suffered by parties due to civil wrongs (Meiners, Ringleb and Edwards, 108). The Marbury v. Madison involved a conflict in the rule of law that established a dilemma in the applicable law. The primary case involved a suit by Marbury and others who required the Supreme Court to order the secretary of state to deliver their appointment letters. The constitution however failed to stipulate such role for the high court though â€Å"The Judiciary Act of 1789† established the power to issue writ of mandamus. The Supreme Court ruled that the judiciary has the power to determine applicable law in case of such conflicts and this identifies the power of judicial review. The landmark case was important in offering checks on the congress’ legislative power by determining validity of legislated laws (Miller and Jentz, 66). Standing to sue defines the state of having a legal interest in a case before initiating litigation. It provides that a plaintiff

Effects of family arrangements on child development

Effects of family arrangements on child development Describe cultural variations in family arrangements and critically examine psychological research on the effects of these family arrangements on childrens development. Marriage is the basis of households that are formed; a neolocal household consists of a married couple creating a new home. One main family type arrangement is the nuclear family. Lee (1987) this arrangement consists of three main positions. The members being within the household sets a presence, so the number of members does not make a nuclear family more compelling. In a patrilocal family, the new couple join the house of the husband and form a new home. In a matrilocal family the home is set up in the wifes birth home. Matri and Partilocal families are also extended/joint families; this is where members of different generations also live in the house. The older generations uphold a power role and are highly respected. The joint/ extended families usually consist of three or more generations in one house. However, there are non- residential extended families this arrangement is where they live near to the home and communal activities and eat with the other household. Extended family arrangements has its advantages such as being supportive in hard times, however there are disadvantages such as them becoming interfering in the independence and restrict the other younger members life Goodwin, Adatia et al 1997. Family structures are mostly dependant on social and economic circumstances as well as cultural values. Joint families are more likely to see having a bigger family as an important source of secure labour and importance. This is mostly deemed to be important when the wage labour is not the principal economic form. A hierarchical and authoritarian structure is often developed gradually within a joint family structure; this is in order to operate in a smooth manner, and to stress obedience and respect for authority and family reputation. Stropes-Roe and Cochrane, 1989. Extended family living situations have often been exaggerated; this was noticed by Goode 1963, when he researched family systems. An example of this is from family structures in China, whereby the family structure was under attack as the newer generations saw this structure within the household as a negative issue, as they stated that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.the traditional family is being wiped out without being replacedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Levy 1949. In the rural areas of China the extended family arrangement is becoming extinct, as the census revealed that the nuclear family is becoming a more common arrangement, reasons for this change may stem from economical reasons, as high mortality rates have increased in the poorer regions due to financial issues which made it difficult for families to extend their homes to accommodate for more people. However, as this change was occurring in China a new form of living developed, this was known the stem family. Stem families consist of parents, their unmarried children and one married child with a partner and children. This arrangement suited children living with their parents due to the lack of housing made available to new buyers and the newly married couple may take advantage of the free accommodation whilst saving to buy further accommodation and the babysitting facilities whilst both parents attend to work. However, instead of contributing more to the elders within an extended family, the young would now benefit more and taking more than they are returning Tsui 1989. This shows that Chinese families can adapt very well in order to suit the socio-political conditions and the environment within the modern family. Overall this demonstrates the functional value of family which is to provide solidarity and material support in difficult times Yang 1988. Also like China the extended family arrangement is rare and only dominant amongst large landowners as they are able to support their large families. Research carried out from Al-Thakeb 1985 found that the extended family has never been the main family structure amongst families living in Arab cultures. This was found by studying nine different Arab countries. Although Al-Thakeb stated that the extended family has never been the main family form in Arab cultures. Due to the family being an independent wedded family this does not mean that the family bonds are weak. As in Arab countries it has been known that the relationship between family members is strong, due to living in close areas to their brothers and sisters, so this arrangement has its rewards as economic cooperation and emotional support is available for the family members. Within the Iran households, housing is a major problem which results in extended families being reduced in size, whilst intensive migration among the rural population has led to the weakening of larger household groups. In turn has led to the separation of extended families, whereby new couples leave their parents and form their own household separately. Meanwhile in Japan a different concept has been applied within household arrangements. The Japanese family structure is like the American family household arrangement; a nuclear setting. Economical reasons are adapted within families here as well, as the retired parents are more likely to live with their children due to economic reasons. However due to many cultural variations in family arrangements, childrens development in society may differ; although there are some similarities as well. The difference in how parents socialise with their children, affects the childs socialisation on childrens development. There are many different parenting styles that are adopted. Steinberg et al 1989 put forward suggestions of three different parenting styles. The first one being psychological autonomy which is the degree to which parents encourage their children to be independent. The second description is parental involvement this is where parents are actively involved in their childs lives. Lastly, the third style is behavioural control this is measured by the degree of how much the parents try to control their childs behaviour and activities. There are two main types of societies within cultures, one being collectivist: this is where the society is involved with the communitys life. The community encourages obedience to authority. In collectivist societies obligation is highly ritualised. The family arrangements that tend to stem from these societies are extended/ joint families mainly. On the other hand there are individualistic societies whereby children are encouraged to develop their own opinions. The family arrangement that mainly stems from this society is the nuclear family. Research into comparing the different societys views on parental upbringing. Larano 1997 conducted research in Canada. Children from different ethnic minorities a list of individualistic and collectivist activities and a parental monitoring scale. The results found showed that collectivist children perceived their parents as being more controlling and less involved with them than individualistic children. This research suggests that the childre n may have come to these conclusions as they live a particular life, for example if a child lived the collectivist extended family life, then it could be argued that the child may perceive the other way of doing things as the better way as it differs from the norm they have to abide by. In China there is continuing evidence for strong parental nurturance and support even when the child has grown up, although the Chinese parenting style is largely authoritarian and involves high levels of regulation from parents in order to ensure proper behaviour. This doesnt mean that children fail to develop autonomy, but may mean that they do so at a later age than children in the more individualistic cultures was found by Schneider et al 1997. One comparison that has been made into the difference between how a child is brought up in cultural difference within families is between Japanese and Israeli families. In Japan children are strongly bonded to their families, with the Japanese mother keen to harmonise her needs with those of her child, which shows the family arrangement between mother and child to be an important one, with the child growing up with a close bond with its mother. Japanese children are constantly in contact with their mothers and are rarely left alone Tobin 1992. Babies are often carried around on their mothers backs and there is a constant non-verbal interaction between parent and child. In comparison the Israeli mothers put forward a more independent upbringing style, and favour the idea of children being independent and self sufficient. As a result of this the Israeli mother may encourage the child ability to be alone as an example of their childs emotional independence, while the Japanese mother may value the child development of social relationships. In Britain different ethnic groups have different attitudes towards the socialisation of their children and their development. Asian families tend to be based with an extended family arrangement. Asian families and in particular Muslim, parents are highly protective of their daughters, fearing British societys drugs problems and its undue emphasis on sex Singh Ghuman 1994. In some cultures polygamous marriages are accepted, this is where a person may be married to more than one partner. On the other hand in most cultures monogamous families are more commonly recognised; one single partner. However, it would raise the question as to whether such a family arrangement affects the development of children Alean Al-Krenawi et al investigated this matter. 146 participants were involved in the study; they consisted of children who were involved in either polygamous family or a monogamous family. The children were tested through a questionnaire which was later analysed. The children from monogamous families had higher levels of learning achievement than the children from polygamous families, which in turn meant that the monogamous children adjusted to school framework better, unlike the polygamous children as much. This shows that these children suffer a disadvantage from living within such a large family, as they experience an overall educational disadvantage and social difficulties as well. The Results also showed that the conflict rating of the children from a large family background; polygamous had a higher rating. It was also found that the fathers level of education tended to be inversely correlated with family size in terms of both number of children and number of wives. These results show that due to these learning difficulties children are faced from living in such situations, that now the teachers my become aware of such problems, as it may be assumed that children from polygamous families may drop out of school early, and may be more at risk of falling for bad habits such as drugs and theft. It was stated that the problem should be overcome by focussing on the recognition of polygamy as a particular risk factor, along with the expectation that over time higher levels of paternal education may well lead to smaller families and more attention to the emotional and social needs of the children. Due to the findings issues within the polygamous families such as tension caused from other wives and step siblings, could be worked on, as it may be an issue affecting the childrens development. It could be argued that the wives could perhaps be encouraged to perceive one another as partners rather than opponents, and in turn the half siblings could also foll ow this principle to help improve the overall family relationship within the household. However there are limitations to this research such as, individual differences have not been considered as some children may just not be very into school life, and that the failure to achieve well isnt to do with the family arrangement at home. Another limitation is that the polygamous families that were researched only had two wives, so it cannot be widely generalised to polygamous families as they differ in sizes, therefore it cannot be stated that even larger polygamous families have a bigger affect on childrens development. A further limitation is that the study was based on a sample of one race, which again makes it harder to generalise the results to other races. With all these limitations it must not be forgotten that the research still shows us that living arrangements and differences such as monogamous and polygamous families do impact the children educational development at school to some extent. Nuclear and extended families affect childrens development as some research has suggested that these living arrangements may cause some psychological stress in childhood. An examination of lifestyles within the inner cities of non-industrial countries highlights the changes in family life this was noted by Abdel Rahim Cederblad, 1980 An example of this is from Sudan families as they traditionally consist of three or more generations, with siblings living side by side and sharing domestic duties and economic responsibilities. Marriages occur early and are arranged by parents; they are frequently between cousins or other family relations Abdelrahman Morgan, 1987.Authority in these extended households usually rests with the grandfather. The grandmother plays a central role in child care and the transmission of cultural identity to her grandchildren. In turn, the extended family is embedded within the wider communal structure of the tribe. This type of social structure encourages conformity to standards of conduct which are seen to be acceptable according to tradition and so promotes social stability. At the same time, gives a sense of communal responsibility for the upbringing of children. Up until the age of weaning a mother has the main responsibility for care. After weaning the responsibility for care and discip line is shared within both the immediate family, and to a lesser extent among the other responsible adults living with the immediate family. In the research conducted by Abdel Rahim Cederblad, 1980 the relation between emotional and social development and family structure in the Sudanese capital, Khartoum, was examined. Children between the ages of 4 and 9 living in extended and nuclear families were compared on mothers ratings of a range of childhood problems. Analysis revealed that children in nuclear families had more conduct, emotional, and sleep problems, poorer self-care, and were more likely to be over dependent than those living in extended families. They were also less likely to be breast fed, to be weaned later, and to have grandmothers involved in child care. Linear multiple regression revealed that, of these 3 childcare factors, grandmothers involvement was the strongest predictor of normal social and emotional adjustment. The possible protective characteristics of the extended family are discussed in relation to the importance of the grandmother as maternal advisor, social support, and socialization agent. However this research does face some limitations such as results of the study may be influenced by factors not studied here. First, it is possible that mothers reports were affected by some systematic bias in reporting. Although both groups reported spending the same amount of time with their children, reporting bias may be due to differences in the mental health of nuclear and extended family mothers Lancaster, Prior, Adler,1989 or variation in the standards of conduct deemed acceptable by them Sonuga-Barke, Minocha, Taylor, Sandberg. These questions centre on the relation between actual deviance and parental perceptions and cannot be addressed without direct observation of the childs behaviour. Second, the relation between child development and family structure reported in the study might be mediated by the effects of stressful life events, such as migration. In a recent study. El Farouk (1991) examined the makeup of a representative sample of the large (34% of the total population; Population Census Office, 1989) migrant population living in Khartoum. More than half of the 266 migrant families studied included three generations. This is similar to the proportion found in the non migrant population and suggests that migration would not selectively affect childhood adjustment in the nuclear families in the present study. The findings imply that the meaning and protective significance of factors is conditional on cultural context as well as developmental status and history. Global ideals of human conduct operating within different cultures directly influence the meaning and significance of personal and intergenerational relationships within families. The impact of family life on child development is mediated by a set of beliefs about the extent to which a particular family structure is consistent with those ideals. In Sudanese culture, as in many traditional societies, social life is governed by ideals of communal interdependence, intergenerational harmony, and social conformity motivated by feelings of collective responsibility and filial piety. In extended families, the physical proximity, emotional intimacy, and (grand-) parental authority are consistent with these ideals. So far the issues that have been mentioned are that family arrangements can affect children development in educational aspects such as the childrens performance at school, and the differences between nuclear and extended family arrangements in regards to development. Another aspect that some research has found that family arrangements may affect is the nutrition and physical growth of children in their development this was researched by Tinkew and DeJong 2004. They looked into the influence of household structure and resource dilution features. The study aimed to compare the impact of different types of household structures such as single parent, multiple parents, extended and cohabitating, and the influence this had on childrens nutrition. They also aimed to investigate whether household structure and household resources interact to affect child nutrition. The results were collated from the Jamaica 1996 Living Standards Measurement Study Survey and other sources. The findings showed that living in a single parent household and cohabitating household increases the odds of stunting for children. The analysis also indicates that children in single parent families with low income and have siblings are more likely to have low height for age, as well as low income extended families with siblings. The key policy implication that is shown through this study is that household structure is important for understanding childrens nutritional outcomes in the Caribbean. This research was beneficial as it highlighted that household arrangements does have some impact on childrens development in regards to health issues. However, it can be criticised as the findings would be more reliable if a larger sample was used and the use of longitudinal data was used instead of cross sectional data, as this would be useful for capturing changes over time in childrens nutritional statuses as well as changes in household structures. Longitudinal data would be especially useful for understanding how changes in household structure can influence child nutrition given the variability of households in the Caribbean, and other changes in composition across the developmental cycle of the household. It has been suggested that further research should also include measures of parental time allocations which would improve the understanding of how time used as a resource is used to affect child nutrition. Household structures effects could work through a variety of mechanisms, and a careful study of these processes is needed especially with regard to future research on this issue in the Caribbean context. In regards to whet her this research is useful, it shows us that there can be some cultural family arrangement issues that are proven to impact the nutritional development of children showing us that there arent just psychological differences; which most research suggests there is. Overall it could be suggested that there are many cultural variations within many different family arrangements. However, it is not completely clear whether the family arrangement directly affects the childs development for reasons such as every child and their development is different and we therefore cannot pin point what factors specifically affect development. Other factors such as sexual orientation, wealth of families, social status and class are all areas that could be researched further to help link the affects within child development. 3215

Jack Black :: essays research papers

I. INTRO Me and my brother Kyle, we were walking down this long and lonesome road, when all of a sudden there shined a shiny teacher, in the middle of the road, and she said, write the best speech in the world, or I’ll eat your soul. If you haven’t figured it out already I chose to do my speech on the great Thomas Black or better known as Jack Black. Actor, comedian, singer songwriter, and lead vocalist for tenacious D. How many people really know anything bout Jack Black, other than he has been in some movies, played some so-so parts, and seems to make an ass of himself? Well then let me fill you in. II. BODY A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thomas Black, born august 28th, 1969 in Hermosa Beach, California a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  mother and father satellite engineers and jack Only child together, b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  always battling for their attention. At this point young Jack went to Hebrew school, were even then he was hailed as the class clown. B.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  His parents divorced when he was 10 and a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  moved 8 bedroom house mom near MGM studios. b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  rented out rooms Jack came to know a music loving journalist C.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At this time jack became a troubled student only interested in music, arts, and theatre a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  age 8, played the wizard in a summer camp production of wizard of oz, b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   muscled his way into every show he could. D.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  age of thirteen first TV ad for the activision game Pitfall, a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  not a sign that that jacks acting career moving upwards. b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   15 jack got into cocaine, c.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  stolen money from his mom sent school for difficult teens, d.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  on campus therapists helped him greatly. E.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was at a specialist arts and science school that he rediscovered At UCLA member of Tim Robbins acting troupe and it was now that Black Kyle Gass. a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   comic possibilities of stadium Rock. F.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  two chunky guys bashing on acoustic guitars, tribute to the greatest one a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  biggest cult bands of the late 90’s and 2000’s. G.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The D’s act showcased blacks theatrical abilities, amazing vocals, and gass’s support on the guitar a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  smoking pot, their musical and sexual powers, and subjects right out of dungeons and dragons. H.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The duo began playing together in 1994, Al’s Bar, playing just one number a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  the afore mentioned homage to the greatest song, â€Å"Tribute.† I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  film debut in 1996’s Bio-Dome. hit it big, a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Beck, Pearl Jam, and the Foo Fighters. J.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2001 critical mass second nation wide tour selling out shows K.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  successfully maintaining band comedic star a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  High Fidelity, with Jon Cusack Tim Robbins Jack Black :: essays research papers I. INTRO Me and my brother Kyle, we were walking down this long and lonesome road, when all of a sudden there shined a shiny teacher, in the middle of the road, and she said, write the best speech in the world, or I’ll eat your soul. If you haven’t figured it out already I chose to do my speech on the great Thomas Black or better known as Jack Black. Actor, comedian, singer songwriter, and lead vocalist for tenacious D. How many people really know anything bout Jack Black, other than he has been in some movies, played some so-so parts, and seems to make an ass of himself? Well then let me fill you in. II. BODY A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thomas Black, born august 28th, 1969 in Hermosa Beach, California a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  mother and father satellite engineers and jack Only child together, b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  always battling for their attention. At this point young Jack went to Hebrew school, were even then he was hailed as the class clown. B.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  His parents divorced when he was 10 and a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  moved 8 bedroom house mom near MGM studios. b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  rented out rooms Jack came to know a music loving journalist C.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At this time jack became a troubled student only interested in music, arts, and theatre a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  age 8, played the wizard in a summer camp production of wizard of oz, b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   muscled his way into every show he could. D.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  age of thirteen first TV ad for the activision game Pitfall, a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  not a sign that that jacks acting career moving upwards. b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   15 jack got into cocaine, c.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  stolen money from his mom sent school for difficult teens, d.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  on campus therapists helped him greatly. E.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was at a specialist arts and science school that he rediscovered At UCLA member of Tim Robbins acting troupe and it was now that Black Kyle Gass. a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   comic possibilities of stadium Rock. F.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  two chunky guys bashing on acoustic guitars, tribute to the greatest one a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  biggest cult bands of the late 90’s and 2000’s. G.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The D’s act showcased blacks theatrical abilities, amazing vocals, and gass’s support on the guitar a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  smoking pot, their musical and sexual powers, and subjects right out of dungeons and dragons. H.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The duo began playing together in 1994, Al’s Bar, playing just one number a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  the afore mentioned homage to the greatest song, â€Å"Tribute.† I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  film debut in 1996’s Bio-Dome. hit it big, a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Beck, Pearl Jam, and the Foo Fighters. J.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2001 critical mass second nation wide tour selling out shows K.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  successfully maintaining band comedic star a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  High Fidelity, with Jon Cusack Tim Robbins

Legitimacy Theory Essay

â€Å"Legitimacy is a generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs, and definitions† (Suchman, 1995, p. 574, emphasis in original) Legitimacy theory has become one of the most cited theories within the social and environmental accounting area. Yet there remains deep scepticism amongst many researchers that it offers any real insight into the voluntary disclosures of corporations. This brief paper outlines responses to two specific concerns identified in the literature. It will eventually form part of a much larger project addressing a range of issues associated with legitimacy theory. First, the paper brings some of the more recent developments in the management and ethical literature on legitimacy and corporations to the accounting table. Second, there are contributions to the theory that have already been made by accounting researchers that are yet to be fully recognised. The author believes that legitimacy theory does offer a powerful mechanism for understanding voluntary social and environmental disclosures made by corporations, and that this understanding would provide a vehicle for engaging in critical public debate. The problem for legitimacy theory in contributing to our understanding of accounting disclosure specifically, and as a theory in general, is that the term has on occasion been used fairly loosely. This is not a problem of the theory itself, and the observation could be equally applied to a range of theories in a range of disciplines (see for example Caudill (1997) on the abuse of Evolutionary Theory). Failure to adequately specify the theory has been identified by Suchman (1995, p. 572, emphasis in original), who observed that â€Å"Many researchers employ the term legitimacy, but few define it†. Hybels (1995, p. 241) comments that â€Å"As the tradesmen [sic] of social science have groped to build elaborate theoretical structures with which to shelter their careers and  disciplines, legitimation has been a blind man’s hammer.† This paper begins to address these issues. Not One Theory but Two (at least) An important issue which needs to be acknowledged is that there are in fact two major classes of legitimacy theory. These are graphically presented in Figure 1 below. The ‘macro-theory’ of legitimation, known as Institutional Legitimacy Theory, deals with how organisational structures as a whole (capitalism for example, or government) have gained acceptance from society at large. â€Å"Within this tradition, legitimacy and institutionalization are virtually synonymous. Both phenomena empower organizations primarily by making them seem natural and meaningful† (Suchman, 1995, p. 576, emphasis in original). In terms of accounting research, given the time frames involved and questions generally being considered, the current business environment, including the capitalist structure, democratic government, etc. are generally taken as a given, a static context within which the research is situated. This assumption would, however, need to be carefully considered for a longitudinal study of any significant length. Figure 1: Layers of Legitimacy Theory INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL GOVERNMENT RELIGION SOCIETY CAPITALISM ORGANISATIONAL LEVEL (IN THIS CASE: COMPANY LTD BY SHARE) Establishment Defence Extension Maintenance From the Moral to the Measurable One layer down from the Institutional Level is what in Figure 1 is called the â€Å"Organisational Level† (sometimes referred to as Strategic Legitimacy Theory). â€Å"Underlying organizational legitimacy is a process, legitimation, by which an organization seeks approval (or avoidance of sanction) from groups in society† (Kaplan and Ruland, 1991, p. 370). It is from this level  that most accounting research tends to draw its understanding of legitimacy. Mathews (1993, p. 350) provides a good definition of legitimacy at this level: Organisations seek to establish congruence between the social values associated with or implied by their activities and the norms of acceptable behaviour in the larger social system in which they are a part. In so far as these two value systems are congruent we can speak of organisational legitimacy. When an actual or potential disparity exists between the two value systems there will exist a threat to organisational legitimacy. At its simplest, within the Organisational view â€Å"legitimacy [is] an operational resource †¦ that organizations extract – often competitively – from their cultural environments and that they employ in pursuit of their goals† (Suchman, 1995, p. 575 6, emphasis in original). Legitimacy, just like money, is a resource a business requires in order to operate. Certain actions and events increase that legitimacy, and others decrease it. Low legitimacy will have particularly dire consequences for an organisation, which could ultimately lead to the forfeiture of their right to operate. Although we can describe a firm as being legitimate, and conceive of ‘amounts’ of legitimacy, it becomes a very subjective exercise to try and directly measure legitimacy. Although it has concrete consequences, legitimacy itself is an abstract concept, given reality by multiple actors in the social environment. For a researcher to try and directly establish, or even rank, the legitimacy of various organisations would seem to be a necessarily subjective undertaking, preferencing the researcher’s own views. As Hybels (1995, p. 243) argues, â€Å"I reject this view because it is based on a conflation of the roles of observer and participant in social science†. As an alternative, rather than trying to subjectively measure a firm’s legitimacy directly it can instead be inferred from the fact that being legitimate â€Å"enables organizations to attract resources necessary for survival (e.g., scarce materials, patronage, political approval)† (Hearit, 1995, p. 2). Hybels (1995, p. 243) develops this in some detail: Legitimacy often has been conceptualized as simply one of many resources that organizations must obtain from their environments. But rather than viewing legitimacy as something that is exchanged among institutions, legitimacy is better conceived as both part of the context for exchange and  a by-product of exchange. Legitimacy itself has no material form. It exists only as a symbolic representation of the collective evaluation of an institution, as evidenced to both observers and participants perhaps most convincingly by the flow of resources. †¦ resources must have symbolic import to function as value in social exchange. But legitimacy is a higher-order representation of that symbolism – a representation of representations. Hybels (1995, p. 243) argues that good models in legitimacy theory must examine the relevant stakeholders, and how â€Å"Each influences the flow of resources crucial to the organizations’ establishment, growth, and survival, either through direct control or by the communication of good will†. He identifies (p. 244) four critical organisational stakeholders, each of which control a number of resources. These are summarised in Table 1 below. Table 1: Critical Organisational Stakeholder STAKEHOLDER RESOURCES CONTROLLED Contracts, grants, legislation, regulation, tax (Note that the (1) The state last three of these could be either a ‘negative’ or ‘positive’ depending on the implementation) (2) The public (3) The financial community (4) The media Few ‘direct resources’; however, can substantially influence the decisions of stakeholders (2) & (3) (if not (1)) Patronage (as customer), support (as community interest), labour Investment The last of these has received considerable attention. The power of the media has been noted by a number of researchers, including Patten (2002, p. 153), who states â€Å"that while increased media attention can certainly lead to the potential for increased pressures from any of the three sources [dissatisfaction of public; new or proposed political action; increased regulatory oversight], increases in pressure can  also arise, particularly with respect to regulatory oversight.† See also Deegan et al. (2000, 2002). Companies try to manage their legitimacy because it â€Å"helps to ensure the continued inflow of capital, labour and customers necessary for viability†¦ It also forestalls regulatory activities by the state that might occur in the absence of legitimacy†¦ and pre-empts product boycotts or other disruptive actions by external parties†¦ By mitigating these potential problems, organizational legitimacy provides managers with a degree of autonomy to decide how and where business will be conducted† (Neu  et al., 1998, p. 265). Researchers need to move away from trying to directly assess legitimacy, and instead focus on measuring it in terms of the resources relevant stakeholders provide. â€Å"Rather than engage in the further development of entirely abstract constructions of the legitimation process†¦ researchers should investigate the flow of resources from organizational constituencies as well as the pattern and content of communications† (Hybels, 1995, p. 244). But Wait†¦ There’s More As shown in Figure 1 Organisational Legitimacy Theory suggests that a firm may be in one of four phases with regard to its legitimacy. These phases are outlined below, some examples of industries/firms that might be considered to be operating in each of these phases are included (further research needs to be undertaken in this area). Establishing Legitimacy. (E.g. Stem Cell based bio-tech). This first phase represents the early stages of a firm’s development and tends to revolve around issues of competence, particularly financial, but the organisation must be aware of â€Å"socially constructed standards of quality and desirability as well as perform in accordance with accepted standards of professionalism† (Hearit, 1995, p. 2). Maintaining Legitimacy. (The majority of organisations). This is the phase that most firms would generally expect to be operating in, where their â€Å"activities include: (1) ongoing role performance and symbolic assurances that all is well, and (2) attempts to anticipate and prevent or forestall potential challenges to legitimacy† (Ashford and Gibbs, 1990, p. 183). However the maintenance of legitimacy is not as easy as it may at first appear. Legitimacy is a dynamic construct. â€Å"Community expectations are not considered static, but rather, change across time thereby requiring organisations to be responsive to the environment in which they operate. An organisation could, accepting this view, lose its legitimacy even if it has not changed its activities from activities which were previously deemed acceptable (legitimate)† (Deegan et al., 2002, p. 319 – 20). Extending Legitimacy. (E.g. Alternative Health Providers). There may come a point where an organisation enters new markets or changes the way it relates to its current market. This can give rise to a need to extend  legitimacy which is â€Å"apt to be intense and proactive as management attempts to win the confidence and support of wary potential constituents† (Ashford and Gibbs, 1990, p. 180). Defending Legitimacy. (E.g. Uranium Mining). Legitimacy may be threatened by an incident (internal or external), and therefore require defence. â€Å"Legitimation activities tend to be intense and reactive as management attempts to counter the threat† (Ashford and Gibbs, 1990, p. 183). Even barring a major incident it is likely in the Western Capitalist system that almost every corporation will regularly need to defend its legitimacy, by the mere fact that â€Å"corporations must fulfil both a competence and community requirement to realize legitimacy†¦ Satisfaction of stockholder interests often occurs at the expense of community concerns (e.g., the despoiling of the environment, the use of labour) while, conversely, responsibility to the larger community often occurs at the expense of the stockholder† (Hearit, 1995, p. 3). It is this last phase that has tended to be the main focus of accounting researchers. It also provides us with the clearest opportunity to examine the crucial link between legitimacy and resources. Lindblom (1994), a key paper cited by many Social and Environmental Accounting researchers, also seems relevant specifically to this phase only. An example of work in this area is Deegan et al.’s (2000) study of five major incidents (including the Exxon Valdez oil spill and the Bhopal Disaster) which provided a context to examine the annual reports of related (in industrial terms) Australian firms to see if there had been a significant change in their social or environmental reporting. They concluded: The results of this study are consistent with legitimacy theory and show that companies do appear to change their disclosure policies around the time of major company and industry related social events. †¦ These results highlight the strategic nature of voluntary social disclosures and are consistent with a view that management considers that annual report social disclosures are a useful device to reduce the effects upon a corporation of events that are perceived to be unfavourable to a corporation’s image (Deegan et al., 2000, p. 127). The Diagnosis Needs Refinement This is where the traditional legitimacy model stops. However my own  research, into the tobacco industry, Tilling (2004), and that of other researchers, including experimental research undertaken by O’Donovan (2002), suggest a further development of the Organisational Legitimacy Level, as depicted in Figure 2 below. Added to the model is the possibility that a firm may not successfully (or may be unable to) defend the threat to its legitimacy and actually start to lose legitimacy. Figure 2: Refinement of the Organisational Level of Legitimacy Theory Establishment Loss Defence Disestablishment Extension Maintenance In this model the defence phase is usually entered by an organisation after some form of one-off ‘incident’ or ‘accident’ which threatens its legitimacy. This phase could be characterised as being ‘acute’, it can be serious, some times even fatal, but usually, with proper management, the organisation can maintain, or at least recover, its legitimacy. However should there be an ongoing series of events, indicative of a systemic issue, e.g. the nuclear power industry, or a single event with permanent consequences which cannot be effectively managed, e.g. realisation that the organisation’s product is not safe such as the tobacco industry, an organisation is likely to have its legitimacy eroded over a period of time (the ‘loss’ phase), which can be characterised as ‘chronic’. The issue can be difficult to manage, and generally leads to declining legitimacy, however the loss may be managed and slowed over a long period of time, or significant change could lead to reestablishment of legitimacy. The ‘loss’ phase is most likely to be preceded by sustained media and NGO scrutiny, and accompanied by increasing government regulation, monitoring and possibly taxation. Within this phase there are likely to be periods where the company will increase its voluntary social and environmental disclosure in an effort to meet specific threats (such as to postpone or defeat proposed regulations) or to communicate systemic corporate change  (similar to the defence phase). However, with each new restriction average total disclosure can be expected to decrease. This idea is alluded to by O’Donovan (2002) who argues, based on experimental evidence, that the lower the perceived legitimacy of the organisation, the less likely it is to bother providing social and environmental disclosure. Watch This Space Legitimacy theory offers researchers, and the wider public, a way to critically unpack corporate disclosures. However the understanding and study of the theory must become more sophisticated, drawing on developments both within the accounting literature and beyond. Only then will the full potential of legitimacy theory for examining a wide range of disclosures be fully realised. Areas that would provide useful insights include at the moment the asbestos industry (as it goes through the disestablisment phase), brothels (as they become much more legitimate within the Australian context), and the forestry industry (as it tries to defend its legitimacy), to name but a few. The knowledge gained will then be used to provide better and more useful information to inform decision making by stakeholders. In this way society is empowered to have greater control and oversight over the way resources are allocated. References: Ashford, B. E. and B. W. Gibbs (1990) â€Å"The Double-Edge of Organizational Legitimation†, Organization Science, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 177 – 194. Caudill, E. (1997) Darwinian Myths: The Legends and Misuses of a Theory, Knoxville, University of Tennessee Press. Deegan, C., M. Rankin and J. Tobin (2002) â€Å"An Examination of the Corporate Social and Environmental Disclosures of BHP from 1983-1997: A Test of Legitimacy Theory†, Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 312 – 343. Deegan, C., M. Rankin and P. Voght (2000) â€Å"Firms’ Disclosure Reactions to Major Social Incidents: Australian Evidence†, Accounting Forum, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 101 – 130. Hearit, K. M. (1995) â€Å"‘Mistakes Were Made’: Organizations, Apologia, and Crises of Social Legitimacy†, Communication Studies, Vol. 46, No. 1-2, pp. 1 – 17. Hybels, R. C. (1995) â€Å"On Legitimacy, Legitimation, and Organizations: A Critical Review and Integrative Theoretical Model†, Academy of Management  Journal, Special Issue: Best Papers Proceedings, 1995, pp. 241 – 245. Kaplan, S. E. and R. G. Ruland (1991) â€Å"Positive Theory, Rationality and Accounting Regulation†, Critical Perspectives on Accounting, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 361 374. Lindblom, C. K. (1994), â€Å"The Implications of Organizational Legitimacy for Corporate Social Performance and Disclosure†, Critical Perspectives on Accounting Conference, New York. Mathews, M. R. (1993) Socially Responsible Accounting, UK, Chapman & Hall. Neu, D., H. Warsame and K. Pedwell (1998) â€Å"Managing Public Impressions: Environmental Disclosures in Annual Reports†, Accounting, Organizations and Society, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 265 – 282. O’Donovan, G. (2002) â€Å"Environmental Disclosures in the Annual Report: Extending the Applicability and Predictive Power of Legitimacy Theory†, Accounting, Auditing and Accountability, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 344 – 371. Patten, D. M. (2002) â€Å"Media Exposure, Public Policy Pressure, and Environmental Disclosure: An Examination of the Impact of Tri Data Availability†, Accounting Forum, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 152 – 171. Suchman, M. C. (1995) â€Å"Managing Legitimacy: Strategic and Institutional Approaches†, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 571 610. Tilling, M. (2004), â€Å"Communication at the Edge: Voluntary Social and Environmental Reporting in the Annual Report of a Legitimacy Threatened Corporation†. APIRA Conference Proceedings, Singapore, July.

Development Of Mughlai Cuisine Of India Architecture Essay

To analyze the impact of events on the development of Mughlai culinary art of North India and the farther Scopess to advance nutrient touristry finish. The purpose of this chapter is to supply its readers with an overview into the subject of the research. The first subdivision of this chapter would cover with the debut to the Mughal History, Imperial culinary art and Sultan ‘s etiquette. The 2nd subdivision would cover with Tourism and its societal and cultural impact on a society. The concluding subdivision would cover with the relation between Food Tourism, civilization and foodways.2.1.1 Mughal EmpireArab plunderers had established their hegemony in Sindh in western India by about AD713, but the Muslim presence merely made itself felt with the foray s of Mohammed of Ghazni from approximately AD 1000.About AD 1206 the first grand Turks, those of the slave dynasty, set up regulation in Delhi. Eleven of them in sequences gave topographic point to two from the house of Balban, six Khaljis, three Tughlaks ( including Muhammad bin Tughlak from AD 1324-51 ) , four Saiyyids and three Lodis, stretching in all for somewhat more than three hundred old ages ( Life and status of people in Hindustan,1935 ) .In 1526 the swayer Babar established the Mughal dynasty in India. He followed by Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jhan and Aurangzeb. The Mughal period was unusually good documented. Both the emperors Babar and Jahangir were brilliant diary keepers and Akbar ‘s matter were circumstantially chronicled in the Ain-i-Akbari [ 1 ] and Akbar-Name by his tribunal historian Abu Fazal. From the clip of Jahangir and thenceforth, a series of travellers from Europe left graphic impressionistic histories of the swayers and the people of India. To the slightly ascetic Hindu dining atmosphere the Muslims brought refined and courtly etiquette of both group of both group and single dining, and of sharing nutrient in family. Food points native to India were enriched with nuts, raisins, spices and ghee. These included meat and rice dishes ( Palao [ 2 ] ) , dressed meat ( Kabab [ 3 ] ) , stuffed points ( Samosas [ 4 ] ) , sweets ( Halva [ 5 ] , stewed fruit ) and sweetened drinks ( Falooda [ 6 ] , Sherbet [ 7 ] ) . New dishes enriched the culinary art of the wheat finely grounded meat ( Halim [ 8 ] , Harisa [ 9 ] ) , or the frozen Kulfi [ 10 ] , a rich ice pick of Khoa [ 11 ] , or Jalebi [ 12 ] . Muslims influenced both the manner and substance of Indian nutrient.2.1.2 The Sultan ‘s etiquetteMubarak Ali in his book ‘Mughal Darbar ‘ ( 1993 ) has written a great trade to about the dining imposts of the Delhi Sultans, which were possibly alone to Muslims royalty in India. A certain rite of formality was observed: Before the dinners begins, the Chamberlain [ 13 ] bases at the caput of the dinners rug ( Simat [ 14 ] ) and performs the bow ( Khidmat [ 15 ] ) in the way of grand Turk ; and all present do the same. The khidmat in India consists of bowing down to the articulatio genus as in supplications. After this the people would sit down to eat, and so they are bought gold, Ag and glass cups filled with all right sugar H2O perfumed with rose-water which they call sherbert. After they have taken the sherbert, the Chamberlain calls out Bismillah [ 16 ] . Then all begin to eat. At the terminal of the dinner, jugs of barley-drink ( Fuqqa [ 17 ] ) are brought ; and when these have been consumed, betel foliages and nuts are served. After the people have taken the betel and nuts, the Chamberlain calls out Bismillah, whereupon all stand up and bow in the same manner as earlier. Then they retire. Two types of dinners were held in the royal castle, A private dinners is the 1 that sultan attends. It is his manner to eat along with those who are present and those whom he calls for the intent, such as the particular amir's [ 18 ] – the caput Chamberlain ( amirhajib ) , the grand Turks paternal cousins, Imad-ul-mulk Sartez and maestro ofA ceremonials ( amir-i-majlis ) – and those out of the a'izza ( ‘The Honourables ‘ ) A and great emir ‘s whom he wants to honor and idolize. Occasionally, when he is declined to honor any one from among present, he takes a home base, puts staff of life on it and gives it to him. The latter receives it: and puting the home base on his left manus, he bows with his right manus touching the land. Sometimes the Sultan sends something from that repast to one absent from it, and the latter excessively bows like the one nowadays and sits down to eat it along with those that be in his company. The figure Lords go toing these private dinners ne'er exceeded 20. It has been remarked that such long jovialities in the company of Lords served to throw them into Sultans Company, and therefore maintain them out of problem. The public dinners are brought from the kitchen led by the castle officers, who call out Bismillah ; and they are headed by the main castle officer. He holds in his manus a gold Mace and is accompanied by his deputy who carries a Ag Mace. Equally shortly as they enter the 4th gate and those in the council-hall hear the call, all stand up and none remain seated, the grand Turk entirely is excepted. When the dishes are served on the floor, the castle of officers stand up in rows, their heads standing in forepart. He makes a discourse in which he praises the grand Turk and eulogizes him ; so he bows to him and in the same mode bow all those present in the council-hall whether large or little. Their usage is that anyone who hears the call of main castle officer ( naqib-un-nuquba [ 19 ] ) stops immediately, if walking and remains in his topographic point if he happens to be standing and none can travel until the discourse is over. Then his deputy excessively makes a similar discourse and bows ; and so make the castle officers and all the people in the 2nd clip. Then all the people take their seats ; and the gate secretaries draft a study informing the Sultan that the nutrient has been brought, even though he is cognizant of that. The study is handed over to a male child from one of the malik ‘s boy appointed for this intent and he takes the message to the Sultan who, on reading it, appoints whosoever he likes from among the great emir ‘s to oversee the seating and eating of the people. Mubarak Ali in his book ‘Mughal Darbar † ( 1993 ) has stated some about the seating besides: The usage at that point of clip was that the Judgess ( Qazis [ 20 ] ) , speechmakers ( Khatibs [ 21 ] ) and legal experts ( Shorfa [ 22 ] ) sit on a rug ( simat ) : and so come the grand Turk relatives, the great emir ‘s and the remainder of the people. But none sits expect at his appointive topographic point ; and therefore there is perfectly no confusion amongst them. All holding so their representative seats, the cup bearerA ( Shurbdariya [ 23 ] ) who give the keeping in their custodies gold, Ag, Cu and glass vass filled with refined sugar dissolved in H2O, which they drink at dinner. Everyone had before him, a set of all the assorted dishes consisting the dinner, which he eats entirely ; and no one portions his home base with another. When they finish eating, the drink ( Fuqqa ) is served in pewter tankards ; and every bit shortly as the people take it the Chamberlains call out Bismillah. At that clip the piece garnering stands up, and the emir ‘s oversing the banquet bows, and they bow excessively ; so they retire.The dinners were held twice a twenty-four hours – 1 in the morning and the other in the afternoon.2.1.3 Kings drink‘Any Muslim who drinks ( vino ) is punished with 80 chevrons, and is shut up in a matamore ( cell ) for 3 months, which is opened merely at the clip of repast ‘ . So says the Quran ( Chapter 6 ) . However there is no uncertainty that imbibing was really common among the grand Turks and the aristocracy. For the Mughals vino had a strong attractive force. Babar had periodic fitsA A of abstention, when he would interrupt up his flagons and goblets of gold and Ag and give away the pieces, merely to restart imbibing and the usage of bhang, after stating himself ( P.N. Chopra,1963, Society and Culture in Mughal India. ) . Akbar, harmonizing to the Jesuit Father Monserate, seldom drank vino, proffering bhang. He enforced prohibition in his tribunal, but relaxed regulations for European travellers because ‘they are born in the component of vino, as fresh fish are produced in H2O†¦ and to forbid them the usage of it is to strip them of their life ‘ ( J.S.Hoyland and, and S.banerjeeA 1922, The Cemetery of Father Monserrate ) . Of his boies, Daniyal and Murad both died immature due to inordinate imbibing. His other boy Jahangir was much addicted, but did non imbibe on Thursdays and Fridays ( Nicclao Manucci, Storio de Mogor 1653-1708, trans William Irvine ) . However at terminal of his government Jahangir would absorb 20 cups of dual distilled spirits daily, 14 during the twenty-four hours and the remainder at dark ( P.N. Chopra,1963, Society and Culture in Mughal India. ) . Shah Jahan drank but ne'er beyond the bounds of decency. The following emperor Aurangzeb was of class rigorous teetotaller who in 1668 issued terrible prohibition order to all his topics, Hindus and Muslim likewise. To do this spirits, arak or rice sprit was put into empty barrel that had contained vino from Europe. The settlings of other barrels were besides added, together with H2O and Sweet sugar. After eight saddle horses, the clear liquid savoring something like white vino. Another vino was made by immersing rosins in rice sprit for 3 to 4 yearss, striving and so keeping the liquid in an empty barrel for 6 to 8 months ; an infusion of day of the months was sometimes added for sugariness and spirit ( William Foster, Early Travels in India 1583-1619 ) .A A A A A A A A2.1.4 The Imperial culinary artBabar is said to hold lived in India for merely 4 A? old ages after suppressing. He lamented fact that this state had ‘no grapes ‘ , musk melons or first rate fruits, no ice cold H2O, no staff of life or cooked nutrient in bazars ( A.S.Beveridge, trans. Babur-nama, 1922 ) . He commented most judiciously on the vegetations and zoologies that he foremost encountered in this new state. He c ommented that chironji [ 24 ] is â€Å" a thing between the Prunus dulcis and the walnut, and non so bad † .He besides described the fish from Hindustan as really savory and that they had no smell or tediousness ( intending likely deficiency of castanetss ) . But bosom Babar remained an foreigner to Indian nutrient. His boy Humayun nevertheless was much more â€Å" Indianized † . Humayun even gave up carnal flesh for some months when he started his run to retrieve the throne, and make up one's minding after some contemplation, that beef was non a nutrient for devout ( J.S.Hoyland and, and S.banerjeeA , The Cemetery of Father Monserrate, , 1922 ) . . Akbar did non like meat and took it merely seasonally ‘to conform to the sprit of the age ‘ ( P.N. Chopra, Society and Culture in Mughal India,1963 ) . He abstained from meat at first of all Fridays, later on Sundays besides, so on first twenty-four hours of every solar month, so during the whole month of Fawardin [ 25 ] ( March ) , and eventually during his berth month of Aban [ 26 ] ( November ) . He started his repast with curds and rice, and preferable simple nutrient. One of travellers Father Monserate documented that Akbar ‘s tabular array was really deluxe, dwelling of more than 40 classs served in great dishes served in great dishes. These dishes were brought into the royal dining hall covered and wrapped in linen fabrics, which are tied and sealed, for the fright of toxicant ( J.S.Hoyland and, and S.banerjee, The Cemetery of Father Monserrate,1922 ) . The Ain-i-Akbari describes three categories cooked dishes. In the first, called safiyana, consumed by Akbar ‘s twenty-four hours of abstention, no meat was used. The dishes were made of rice ( zard-birinj [ 27 ] , khushka [ 28 ] , khichri [ 29 ] and sheer-birinj [ 30 ] ) , wheat ( chikhi [ 31 ] , basically the amylum of the rice isolated by rinsing and so seasoned ) , pigeon peas [ 32 ] , palak droop [ 33 ] , halwa, sherbert etc. The 2nd category comprised those in which both meat and rice were employed ( like Palao, Biryani [ 34 ] , Shulla [ 35 ] and Shurba [ 36 ] ) , or meat and wheat ( Harisa, Halim and Kashk [ 37 ] ) A .The 3rd category was that in which meat was cooked in ghee, spices, curd, eggs etc. These dishes in due class of clip came to be known as Yakhni [ 38 ] , Kabab, Do-Pyazza [ 39 ] , Musallam [ 40 ] , Dampukth [ 41 ] , Qaliya [ 42 ] and Malghuba [ 43 ] . Bread in this clip was either thick, made from wheat flour and baked in an oven ; or thin, and bake on Fe ho me bases utilizing dough of either wheat or khushka. Natural stuff came from assorted topographic points ; A rice from Bharaijj, Gwalior, Rajori and Nimlah, ghee [ 44 ] from Hissar, ducks, water bird and certain veggies from Kashmir, and fruits from across the north western boundary lines every bit good as from all over the state. Though Jahangir, unlike his male parent, enjoyed eating meat, and particularly the animate beings of the pursuit, he kept his male parent agenda of abstention, adding Thursday to them, that being the twenty-four hours of birth of his boy Akbar. He banned the slaughter of animate beings on Thursday and Sundays. He seemed to hold left fish wholly and preferred a khichri called lazizan, made of rice cooked with pulsations, ghee, spices and nuts on the yearss of abstention from flesh. Another of his favourites was Falooda, jelly made from the straining of poached wheat, assorted with fruit juices and pick ( P.N. Chopra, Society and Culture in Mughal India, 1963 ) . Aurangzeb boy of Jahangir on the other manus was a Spartan. Tavernier says that no animate being passed his lips: he go ‘thin and thin ‘ to which the great fasts that he kept hold contributed†¦ he merely drank a small H2O, and ate small measure of millet staff of life.Besides that he slept on the land with merely a tiger ‘s tegument over him ( P.N. Chopra, Society and Culture in Mughal India, 1963 ) .2.2. TourismTourism today is one the fastest turning sectors in the planetary economic system. It is besides one ofthe largest sectors in the universe economic system doing of all time increasing parts to planetary end product and employment.In 2008, international tourer reachings grew by 2 % to 924 million, up 16 million over 2007. Analysts further predict that the tourer reachings will touch 1.6 billion by the twelvemonth 2020. Tourism is one of the largest income generators for an economic system and is turning at a really rapid gait. Growth in touristry besides translates into indirect growing and impact on assorted other sectors of the economyA ( Farooquee, N.A. et Al ( 2008 ) ‘ Environmental and Socio-Cultural Impacts of River Rafting and Camping on Ganga in Uttarakhand Himalaya ‘ ) .2.2.1 IntroductionService industry has gained utmost potency in the past two decennaries and is now one of the chief industries for societal and economic growing of any part. This growing has bought along with itself an addition in the planetary end product and assorted employment chances. One of the of import constituents of the service sector is touristry sector. The World Tourism Organization defines touristry as â€Å" The activities of individuals going to and remaining in topographic points outside their usual environment for non more than one back-to-back twelvemonth for leisure, concern and other intent † ( Commission of the European Communities et al. , 2001 ) . Tourism incorporates both touchable and intangible elements of service sector. Tourism has evolved over clip ( six decennaries about ) and has been go oning turning and diversifying in order to go the fastest and the largest turning economic sectors in the universe. Tourism has been booming at an exponential rate thereby advancing and researching new finishs and in some instances going the chief driver of the economic system. In some the underdeveloped states it is one of the chief income bring forthing sector and besides the figure one in export class at that place by bring forthing employment on a larger graduated table. The travel and touristry industry is undergoing a transmutation as the significance of this industry is unveiled by most states.2.2.2 HISTORY OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELLERS:Tourism has been apparent throughout the ages. It has merely taken a major leap in the past few decennaries and has become a major portion of the economic system. Ancient age travel was largely an unconscious matter. Travel was chiefly an result of trade and other commercialism activities. In other words, earlier traveller can be regarded as a merchandiser looking for goods and merchandises and prosecuting in trade and commercialism. States like India and China have attracted travellers from all over the ancient universe. This tendency continued ensuing in geographic expedition of different finishs by the Europeans particularly heading towards Indian shores for the exclusive intent of trade and commercialism. The impulse to research new lands and to seek new cognition in antediluvian and distant lands was yet another motivation of travelers in subsequent periods. Traveling that took topographic point during the Middle Ages was largely for spiritual intents. The pattern for going for spiritual intents became a good established usage in many parts of the universe. Romans were known for going during this epoch and wherever they went, there existed a all right web of roads. Tourism gained impulse every bit shortly as alterations like the mental attitudes towards pleasance, instruction based travel ; addition in disposal income, need for a interruption from the humdrum work agenda etc took topographic point. For about the first one-fourth of the twentieth century pleasance travel was merely for the privileged 1s of the society holding free clip in manus every bit good as significant buying power. Numerous travel associations were formed during this clip of the century who organized trips and holidaies for in-between category and their households. However, it was the twentieth century where a alteration was witnessed in the whole touristry scenario particularly from an international position for different intents like wellness, concern, diversion or spiritual intents which led authoritiess to publish passports and visas and take enterprises to their citizens abroad. Increase in touristry has been good for the full universe linking all the finishs to one a nother. However, there have been jobs associated with developing states where the authorities capacity is limited and tourist Numberss are increasing. These states rely extremely on touristry and are badly affected when touristry is discouraged on the evidences of condemnable activities and safety and security issues. â€Å" These issues and many more like the environmental issues have grown as international touristry reachings have soared to over 800 million yearly. By 2020 that figure is expected to be over 1.6 billion † ( World Trade Organization, 1997 ) . Despite these factors, touristry development opens doors to assorted employment chances for the underdeveloped states.2.2.3 IMPACTS OF TOURISMTourism is amongst the fastest and most diverse sectors of the economic system. It has been a focal point of many authoritiess, particularly for developing economic systems, to seek and develop touristry as one of the most attractive sectors of the domestic economic system. Tourism constant ly impacts every part, civilization, people, state etc that it touches. These impacts are an challenging mix of the good and the bad for the part. Governments have to do a trade off between the advantages offered by touristry and the negative impacts brought in by it. Ming dynasties and Chulikpongse ( 1994 ) have noted touristry ‘s function as an agent of alteration, conveying countless impacts on regional economic conditions, societal establishments and environmental quality.A The impacts of touristry can be categorized into the undermentioned parts i.e. Economic Impacts, Socio-Cultural Impacts and Environmental Impacts.2.2.3. Economic Impact:In most instances, economic benefits lead to the focussed growing of touristry as a sector in any state. Today, touristry is one of the universe ‘s first beginnings of export net incomes, if planetary touristry income and international transit grosss are included.Harmonizing to Keiko Noji ( 2001 ) , Governments focal point on touri stry development as it presents the easy path to roll uping and increasing the foreign militias, making occupations and lending to over all economic growing. Private sector, which brings commercial addition to the state, is a taking force in the touristry industry. In many instances, foreign capital dominates the domestic and international market and touristry outgo goes outside of the state. There are possible positive and negative impacts of such touristry development.2.2.3.1 Fiscal:Tourism helps the host community earn assorted monetary additions in the signifier growing in the foreign exchange militias, Gross Domestic Product, growing in regional commercial endeavors and for persons every bit good. For e.g. the part of Travel & A ; Tourism to Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) ofIndiahas been forecasted to stay changeless at 6.1 % in 2008 to 6.1 % in 2018. Besides, Export net incomes from international travellers and touristry goods contributed 6.7 % of entire exports in 2008, and it is anticipated that this will lift to 4.4 % of sum in 2018 ( Beginning: World Travel & A ; Tourism Council 2008 ) .A A2.2.3.2 Employment Opportunity:Tourism development in a part leads to the more employment chances and higher pay rates for work forces and adult females and entree to better developing for employees. Lee ( 1996 ) studied the economic effects of touristry in New Zealand and concluded that touristry performed better than most industries in bring forthing employment and revenue enhancement grosss and performed reasonably good in administering income among household income categories. Cukier-Snow and Wall ( 1994 ) besides examined touristry employment growing in Bali, reasoning an addition in the employment of adult females. The part of the Travel & A ; Tourism Economy to employment â€Å"in Indiais expected to lift from 30,491,000 occupations in 2008, 6.4 % of entire employment, or 1 in every 15.6 occupations to 39,615,000 occupations, 7.2 % of entire employment or 1 in every 13.8 occupations by 2018 † ( Source: World Travel & A ; Tourism Council 2008 ) . The assets associated with touristry overpower the negatives it brings with it. However, negative impacts associated with touristry can non be ignored. The employment is frequently parttime and low paid. The skilled places are occupied by foreign subjects and hence there is disparity in the income distribution form frequently associated with leakages.A2.2.3.3 Servicess:Tourism creates growing chances in a part. It leads to the creative activity of new installations, public-service corporations and diversion installations that would non hold been possible or financially feasible to supply in the community. Tourist outlooks can take to better service by local stores, eating houses, and other concern operators and enterprisers. The tourer traffic in a community leads to break installations such as fire section, constabulary, and wellness services which besides benefits the local occupants. However, long-established and conventional services may be forced out or relocated due to competit ion with tourer involvements. Water, power, fuel, and other deficits may be experienced because of increased force per unit area on the substructure.2.2.3.4 Others:Other economic impacts of touristry includes enlargement of the economic base ( i.e. , variegation ) , Inter-sectoral linkage and Multiplier effects, growing of entrepreneurshipA as merchandises and services can be locally produced by touristry related and other concern, creative activity and growing of substructure installations, improvement of societal services and encouragement of regional development in developing countries. The most profound impact that touristry has on the host economic system is through the development and growing of substructure in the domestic state.2.2.4 SOCIO CULTURAL IMPACTS:Tourism can be act as either an international peace shaper and can assist in understanding or it can be a destructive force assailing different civilizations, ecology, and local communities ( Mirbabayev. B, Shagazatova. M ) . Therefore, development of a tourer finishs and its associated comfortss and benefits require a elaborate program in order to accomplish victory over the negativeness associated with it, particularly in developing states where conserving and developing the quality of life of local populations is disputing. The societal and cultural deductions of touristry necessitate thorough and elaborate deliberations, as effects can either interpret into long term benefits or hurts to communities. A state ‘s civilization and societal environment is highly vulnerable and therefore it needs protect ion and saving, as touristry is an gnawing force of modernisation. ( Hing. N, Dimmock. K, 1997 )2.2.4.1 Cultural Impacts:Local civilization of a part or state is the focal point for pulling tourers to the part. Though the local sculpture, music, dance, culinary art, vesture, handcrafts and traditional imposts, ceremonials and folklore are a beginning of attractive force, touristry can take to commercialisation and abuse of these really assets. This will farther take to the impairment, debasement and eventually the disappearing and the local civilization. Some of the customary activities of a part may look absurd to the tourers may take the tourers to oppose and derogative activities against the local civilization ( Xavier, 2001 ) . Cultural facets of host parts act as tourer drawing cards, but are at the same time vulnerable to socialization. Though it has a negative impact on the local traditions, assorted writers have studied that it can help in the saving procedure. Harmonizing to a survey carried out by Teye, touristry can lend to greater understanding between North and South Africa by developing cultural touristry which promotes host-guest experiences and non than superficial brushs, ( Hing. N, Dimmock. K, 1997 ) . In another instance survey on the impacts of touristry on the Khajuraho temple inIndia, it is stated that touristry can convey economic alleviation and prosperity to local community, with minimum socio-cultural costs. ( Hing. N, Dimmock. K, 1997 )2.2.5.2 Social Impacts:Social interface amid tourers and local community may ensue in common grasp, apprehension, credence, consciousness and acquisition. It gives the host community a large encouragement in assurance and regard, and reduces biass and abolishes preconceived impressions and perceptual experiences. Local communities are benefited through part by touristry to the betterment of the societal substructure for illustration development of roads, Parkss, museums, wellness attention establishments, cyberspace coffeehouse etc. Robinson ( 1999 ) , states that there is no grounds that proves that touristry is conveying different civilizations together. Tourism can increase tenseness, ill will, and intuition. Tourism has an inauspicious impact on the traditional patterns, the perceptual experience of the occupants. Unbalanced population constructions, supplanting of local people, a negative behaviour by visitants toward occupants and an inauspicious consequence on the overall community life. Assorted surveies have been carried out to find that an addition in touristry has a direct impact on the addition in offense rate of a finish, as most frequently tourers are the victims to these condemnable Acts of the Apostless ( McElroy, Tarlow & A ; Carlisle, 2007 ) . Tourism can and frequently does take to jobs such as harlotry, alcohol addiction, chancing and drug trafficking. There are few tourist finishs immune to this job ( Noji.K, 2001 ) . Hence it is highly indispensable to advance touristry in the part while guaranting that it provides both incomes every bit good as generates respect for the local tradition and civilization.2.3 Food TourismFood Tourism is all approximately nutrient as a topic and medium, finish and vehicle, for touristry. It is about persons researching nutrients new to them every bit good as utilizing nutrient to research new civilization and ways of being. It is about groups utilizing nutrient to ‘sell ‘ their histories and to build marketable and publicly attractive individualities, and it is about persons fulfilling wonder. Finally it is about sing of nutrient in a manner that is out of the ordinary, that stairss outside the normal modus operandi to detect difference and the power of nutrient to stand for a nd negociate the difference. Folklorist, nutrient bookmans and nutrient aficionados have long fascinated by occasions of explorative eating- cases of eating the new, the unfamiliar, the alien- and by the institutional cookery books and folklife festivals. These occasions and include assortment of nutrient related behaviors and reflect complex web of cultural, societal, economic and aesthetic systems every bit good as single penchants. The definition of what constitutes adventuresome feeding is a contextual 1 that depends on the position and motives of the feeder. The writer states that the intent of nutrient touristry as a model is to seek together the impression of position and assortment of cases in which a foodways is considered representative of the other. Lucy M Long ( 2007 ) defines nutrient touristry as the international as the international, explorative engagement in the foodways another-participation including the ingestion, readying and presentation of nutrient points, culinary art, repast system or eating manner considered to a culinary system that no 1 owns. This definition accent on the person as an active agent in building significance within a tourer experience and it allows for an aesthetic response to nutrient as a portion of the experience. Exploration and internationalism define these cases as touristry. Valence Smith ( 1989 ) defines a tourer as a temporarily leisured individual who voluntarily visits a topographic point off from place for the intent of sing a alteration. The culinary tourer participates for the intent of sing a alteration in foodways non simply hungriness. Nelson Graburn ( 1989 ) proposed that for the tourer to see is a journey from profane to the sacred as a manner to embroider and addA significance to 1s life. The tourer experience offers non merely new civilizations and new sights, but besides a new manner of comprehending those sights and these new manner finally heighten an person. Johan Urry ( 1990 ) developed this impression of touristry as quantitative class of experience, specifying it as a sort of sing he refers to as a â€Å" tourer regard † . This regard is different from â€Å" every twenty-four hours looking † in that it attends to difference. It notices contrast and peculiarity, it shifts the ordinary action and objects out of the ordinary universe enable Trapa bicornis and promoting viewing audiences to rcognise their power as symbols, amusement and art.2.4 Authenticity and Culinary Tourism in Mughlai Restaurants across Delhi and AgraFood touristry has long been linked with genuineness in Mughlai eating houses across Delhi and Agra. Lifestyle magazines such as Gourmet and Travel & A ; Leisure reveal the connexion between nutrient and touristry. On the other side , backpacker ushers like the Lonely PlanetA ever include subdivisions on local nutrients and where to eat while going. As these magazines demonsterate nutrient and touristry go manus in manus. But when feeding is touristry, a whole new theoretical model arises. Culinary touristry, the geographic expedition of foreign foodways as a representative of an otherA provides a model for interrogating the assorted intersections between touristry and foodways ( Long, 1998 ) . The term authensity has been widely used to analyze both foodways and touristry, it can besides be applied within the frame work of culinary touristry to hold a better understanding about societal kineticss, peculiarly the procedure of individuality building and proof, that by and large accompany the escapades in eating.A Cultural eating house are a good illustration how dinning constitutions have come under the tourer regard and how dining constitutions have become a tourer patterns. Eating where the eating house is described as a signifier of individuality work â€Å" a theatre for thought and forging a ego † ( Shelton 1990 ) . An cultural eating house is a symbolic phase upon which the geographic expedition of the alien, facilitated through the construct of genuineness becomes an look of individuality.2.4.1 Authenticity a praradoxAuthenticity has been categorized as a plastic word that â€Å" have come to intend so much that they truly intend really small while however less signaling importance and power † ( Bendix,1992 ) . â€Å" Authenticity measures the grade to hex something is more or less what is ought to be. It is therefore a norm of some kind. But is it an subjective norm, emerging somehow from the cusine itself? Or is it an experimental norm, reflecting some imposed gastronomic criterion? If it is an subjective norm, who is its aythoritative voice: The professional cook? The mean consumer? The glutton? The homemaker? If it is an imposed norm, who is its privileged voice: the cognoscente alien nutrient? The tourer? The ordinary Participants in a adjacent culinary art? The cultivated feeder from distant one? . † Arjun Appadurai ( 1986 ) Appaduraj above inquiries the lineation of the basic argument over genuineness: where it is locatedA and by what authorization is it judged? . Appadurai believes the above term should non be applied to culinary system at all, as it can non account for the in avoidable that occurs in civilization and their culinary art.2.4.2 Mughal Influence on Indian FoodThe culinary art of India is every bit huge as its people. Each and everyA group has its ain typical nutrient penchants along with their different civilization. India has witnessed several invasions from Arab, Central Asia, the Mughal Empire and Persia in its early yearss. These invasions had a great influence on Indian nutrient. The Muslims from western Asia brought the Mughlai culinary arts to India in the fifteenth century when Mughal swayers conquered a big part of India. During the Mughal dynasty, these dishes were prepared for the Mughal Emperors for elegant dining with dry fruits and nuts. The cordial reception of sharing of nutrient with others in Mughal courtly society helped India to absorb it as its ain. Mughlai culinary art is one of the most richest, popular and munificent culinary arts in the state. These are pretty spicy and have alone aroma. The cookery method includes tonss of milk and pick with alien spices, nuts and dried fruits to do it rich and spicy. Biryani, Korma and Palau are some of the celebrated Mughlai culinary art. The Mughal influence on Indian nutrient supported the development of Indian nutrient to a great extent. The Mughlai culinary art full of rich gravies and non-vegetarian nutrients such as kabobs, along with the fruits like apricots, Prunus persicas, plums and melons contoured the construction of the Indian nutrient while offering it a distinguishable dimension. Each of the Muslim swayers offered something or the other to do Indian nutrient the assortment of spice, gustatory sensation, nip and spirit. The narrative of success Mughlai nutrient is still go oning via the agencies of ethinic and some new eating houses which still serve Mughlai nutrient. It still remains as one of the most of import portion in Indian culinary manner in any eating house across India. Although, Mughlai culinary arts are available in all parts of the state, but Delhi and Agra are the best topographic point for this royal culinary art. In this present scenario, the Mughlai influence on Indian nutrient reflects the local cookery manners in it. The culinary arts available in Delhi and Agra are nevertheless are the combination Indo-Persian manner and typical North Indian spices like Cuminum cyminum, Chinese parsley, cardamon, cinnamon, turmeric and land chilies. Whereas in Hyderabad, curry foliages, hot chilies, mustard seeds, Tamarindus indica and coconut milk are added to these culinary arts to give them a local spirit.2.5 Mention2.5.1 BooksK.MA AshrafA ( 1935 ) , A Life and status of people in Hindustan,2n dA edition. New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal. pp 118-19 and pp 158-63M.S.Radhawa ( 1982 ) , A History of agribusiness in India, Indian council of agribusiness research, vol. 2, New DelhiP.N. Chopra ( 1963 ) , Society and Culture in Mughal India, 2nd edition, Agra. Shiv Lal Agarwala and Co. ( Pvt ) Ltd. p. 51 and 257J.S.Hoyland and, and S.Banerjee ( 1922 ) , A The Cemetery of Father Monserrate, India. Oxford University Press. p.199Nicclao Manucci, Storio de Mogor 1653-1708, trans William Irvine, John Murrary ( 1980 ) , vol.1, London. p.219Abul Fazal, The Ain-i-Akbari, trans H.Blochmann ( 1871 ) , New Delhi. Abul, Aadiesh Book Depot, repr.1965. pp. 57-78William Foster, Early Travels in India 1583-1619, New Delhi. S.chand and Co, repr 1968. pp. 60-121A.S.Beveridge ( trans. ) , Babar nama ( 1922 ) , New Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. Pp. 645 and 687.Mubarak Ali, Mughal Darbar ( 1992 ) , Lahore, Nigarshat, .6 Sethi. V ( C1051 )

Biography of Boudicca, British Celtic Warrior Queen

Biography of Boudicca, British Celtic Warrior Queen Boudicca was a  British Celtic warrior queen who led a revolt against Roman occupation. Her date and place of birth are unknown and its believed she died in 60 or 61 CE.  An alternative British spelling is Boudica, the Welsh call her Buddug, and she is sometimes known by a Latinization of her name, Boadicea or Boadacaea. We know the history of Boudicca through two writers: Tacitus, in Agricola (98) and The Annals (109), and Cassius Dio, in The Rebellion of Boudicca (about 163) Boudicca was the wife of Prasutagus, who was head of the Iceni tribe in East England, in what is now Norfolk and Suffolk.  Nothing is known about her birth date or birth family. Fast Facts: Boudicca Known For: British Celtic Warrior Queen  Also Known As: Boudicea, Boadicea, Buddug, Queen of BritainBorn: Britannia (date unknown)Died: 60 or 61 CESpouse: PrasutagusHonors: A statue of  Boudicca  with her daughters in her  war  chariot stands next to Westminster Bridge and the Houses of Parliament in England. It was commissioned by Prince Albert, executed by Thomas Thornycroft, and completed in 1905.Notable Quotes: If you weigh well the strengths of our armies you will see that in this battle we must conquer or die. This is a womans resolve. As for the men, they may live or be slaves. I am not fighting for my kingdom and wealth now. I am fighting as an ordinary person for my lost freedom, my bruised body, and my outraged daughters. Roman Occupation and Prasutagus Boudicca was married to Prasutagus, ruler of the Iceni people of East Anglia, in 43 CE, when the Romans invaded Britain, and most of the Celtic tribes were forced to submit. However, the Romans allowed two Celtic kings to retain some of their traditional power. One of these two was Prasutagus. The Roman occupation brought an increased Roman settlement, military presence, and attempts to suppress Celtic religious culture. There were major economic changes, including heavy taxes and money lending. In 47, the Romans forced the Ireni to disarm, creating resentment. Prasutagus had been given a grant by the Romans, but the Romans then redefined this as a loan. When Prasutagus died in 60 CE, he left his kingdom to his two daughters and jointly to Emperor Nero to settle this debt. Romans Seize  Power After Prasutagus Dies The Romans arrived to collect, but instead of settling for half the kingdom, they seized control of all of it. According to Tacitus, to humiliate the former rulers, the Romans beat Boudicca publicly, raped their two daughters, seized the wealth of many Iceni, and sold much of the royal family into slavery. Dio has an alternative story that does not include rapes and beatings. In his version, a Roman moneylender named Seneca called in loans of the Britons. The Roman governor Suetonius turned his attention to attacking Wales, taking two-thirds of the Roman military in Britain. Boudicca meanwhile met with the leaders of the Iceni, Trinovanti, Cornovii, Durotiges, and other tribes, who also had grievances against the Romans, including grants that had been redefined as loans. They planned to revolt and drive out the Romans. Boudiccas Army Attacks Led by Boudicca, about 100,000 British attacked Camulodunum (now Colchester), where the Romans had their main center of rule. With Suetonius and most of the Roman forces away, Camulodunum was not well-defended, and the Romans were driven out. The Procurator Decianus was forced to flee. Boudiccas army burned Camulodunum to the ground; only the Roman Temple was left. Immediately, Boudiccas army turned to the largest city in the British Isles, Londinium (London). Suetonius strategically abandoned the city, and Boudiccas army burned Londinium and massacred the 25,000 inhabitants who had not fled. Archaeological evidence of a layer of burned ash shows the extent of the destruction. Next, Boudicca and her army marched on Verulamium (St. Albans), a city largely populated by Britons who had cooperated with the Romans and who were killed as the city was destroyed. Changing Fortunes Boudiccas army had counted on seizing Roman food stores when the tribes abandoned their own fields to wage rebellion, but Suetonius had strategically burned the Roman stores. Famine thus struck the victorious army, greatly weakening it. Boudicca fought one more battle, though its precise location is unknown. Boudiccas army attacked uphill, and, exhausted and hungry, was easily routed by the Romans to rout. Roman troops- numbering just 1,200- defeated Boudiccas army of 100,000, killing 80,000 while suffering only 400 casualties. Death and Legacy What happened to Boudicca is uncertain. She may have returned to her home territory and taken poison to avoid Roman capture. As a result of the rebellion, the Romans strengthened their military presence in Britain but also lessened the oppressiveness of their rule. After the Romans suppressed Boudiccas rebellion, Britons mounted a few smaller insurrections in the coming years, but none gained the same widespread support or cost as many lives. The Romans would continue to hold Britain, without any further significant trouble, until their withdrawal from the region in 410. Boudiccas story was nearly forgotten until Tacitus work Annals was rediscovered in 1360. Her story became popular during the reign of another English queen who headed an army against foreign invasion, Queen Elizabeth I. Today, Boudicca is considered a national heroine in Great Briton, and she is seen as a universal symbol of the human desire for freedom and justice. Boudiccas life has been the subject of historical novels and a 2003 British television film,  Warrior Queen. Sources â€Å"History - Boudicca.†Ã‚  BBC, BBC.Mark, Joshua J. â€Å"Boudicca.†Ã‚  Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, 28 Feb. 2019.Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. â€Å"Boudicca.†Ã‚  Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, Inc., 23 Jan. 2017.

Nguyen Silk Flower Ltd is (NSF) The WritePass Journal

Nguyen Silk Flower Ltd is (NSF) 1. INTRODUCTION

ANALIZATION OF CHARACTERS-- ALL QUIET ON THE WESTE

ANALIZATION OF CHARACTERS ALL QUIET ON THE WESTE Essay RN FRONT- PAUL BAUMER Paul Baumer is the 19-year-old narrator of the story. At the front, Pauls special friends in Second Company include his classmates Behm, Kemmerich, Muller, Leer, and Kropp. The six of them were among 20 who enlisted together, prodded on by Schoolmaster Kantorek. Although he doesnt say so, Paul is obviously a natural leader: Franz Kemmerichs mother implored him to look after her son when they left home. Paul is also courageous. He may momentarily panic, but he doesnt break under the most terrible battle conditions. He learns the sound of each type of shell; he dives for cover or grabs his gas mask at the right instant. In one battle, he gently comforts an embarrassed rookie who has soiled his underpants, and later soberly contemplates shooting the same man to spare him an agonizing death after his hip has been shattered. Cool as he is in battle, though, Paul has a hard time making sense of it all. He keeps recalling Behm, the first of his class to die, and when a second- Kemmerich- dies, he rages inwardly at the senseless slaughter of scrawny schoolboys. The callous attitude of commanders and orderlies toward an individual death saddens and disillusions him. His elders were wrong- there is nothing glorious about war- but he has no new values to replace the patriotic myths they taught him. At first his companions seem shallow to him- immediately forgetting the dead and turning their total attention to stockpiling the cigarets and food originally meant for the deceased soldier- and he is at pains to tell us why this callousness is necessary. Gradually, though, he comes to accept their approach: that poetry and philosophy and civilian paper-pushing jobs alike, all are utterly pointless in the midst of so much carnage. All you have is the moment at hand, and getting from it all the physical comfort you can is a worthwhile goal. There is another important element, too, to being with your comrades, as going on leave proves to Paul: no civilian u nderstands you the way these men do, and nothing from your former life sustains you the way their friendship does. These values come together for Paul the evening he joins an older friend, Katczinsky, on a goose-hunting raid. They spend the night roasting the goose before eating it, and each time that Paul awakens for his turn at the basting, he feels Katczinskys presence like a cloak of comfort. At other times, panicked and alone in the dark of the trenches, all it takes to steady his nerves is the sound of his friends voices. If he awakens from a nightmare, the mere sound of their breathing strengthens him: he is not alone. Paul gradually comes to realize that the enemy is no different from himself or from one of his friends. The Frenchman he kills in the trenches, Duval, looks like the kind of man whose friendship he would have enjoyed. The Russian prisoners he guards have the same feelings and desires and needs as he. He comes to see war as the ultimate horror. Its bad enough th at it pits man against man. But even animals and trees and flowers and butterflies are innocently caught up in the carnage inflicted by Man, the great Destroyer. As his friends are killed one by one, Paul can only cling to his newfound beliefs in the brotherhood of all men and the value of the spark of life within each individual. At the end, alone, he has only the blind hope that his own mysterious inner spark will somehow survive and guide him after the war. Otherwise, he sees no meaningful future. Themes 1. THE HORROR OF WAR Remarque includes discussions among Pauls group, and Pauls own thoughts while he observes Russian prisoners of war (Chapters 3, 8, 9) to show that no ordinary people benefit from a war. No matter what side a man is on, he is killing other men just like himself, people with whom he might even be friends at another time. But Remarque doesnt just tell us war is horrible. He also shows us that war is terrible beyond anything we could imagine. All our senses are assaulted: we see newly dead soldiers and long-dead corpses tossed up together in a cemetery (Chapter 4); we hear the unearthly screaming of the wounded horses (Chapter 4); we see and smell three layers of bodies, swelling up and belching gases, dumped into a huge shell hole (Chapter 6); and we can almost touch the naked bodies hanging in trees and the limbs lying around the battlefield (Chapter 9). The crying of the horses is especially terrible. Horses have nothing to do with making war. Their bodies gleam beautifully as they parade along- until the shells strike them. To Paul, their dying cries represent all of nature accusing Man, the great destroyer. In later chapters Paul no longer mentions nature as an accuser but seems to suggest that nature is simply there- rolling steadily on through the seasons, paying no attention to the desperate cruelties of men to each other. This, too, shows the horror of war, that it is completely unnatural and has no place in the larger scheme of t hings. 2. A REJECTION OF TRADITIONAL VALUES In his introductory note Remarque said that his novel was not an accusation. But we have seen that it is, in many places, exactly that. This accusation- or rejection of traditional militaristic values of Western civilization- is impressed on the reader through the young soldiers, represented by Paul and his friends, who see military attitudes as stupid and who accuse their elders of betraying them. In an early chapter Paul admits that endless drilling and sheer harassment did help toughen his group and turn them into soldiers. But he points out, often, how stupid it is to stick to regulations at the front- how insane this basic military attitude becomes in life-and-death situations. One such scene occurs in Chapter 1 when Ginger, the cook, doesnt want to let 80 men eat the food prepared for 150, no matter how hungry they are. Another occurs in Chapter 7 when Paul is walking around in his hometown and a major forces him to march double ti me and salute properly- a ridiculous display, considering what he has just been through at the front. The emptiness of all this spit and polish shows up again in Chapter 9 when the men have to return the new clothes they were issued for the Kaisers inspection: rags are whats real at the front. The betrayal of the young by their elders becomes an issue on several occasions. In the first two chapters of the book we learn how misguided Paul was by the teachings of parents and schoolmasters. We also see how older people cling to the Prussian mythof the glory of military might when Paul goes home on leave in Chapter 7. The Kaisers visit in Chapter 9 adds some hints of Remarques specific disillusionment with the leaders of his own country. From a broad study of literature and world history, we can see that these older people were not individually to blame for their views. They were simply handing on what was handed on to them. Still, we can also understand why Paul and his friends are so bitterly disappointed and so angry to discover that their elders were wrong. Most readers feel alittle sad that young men should consider the act of ridiculing adults their greatest goal in life, but we can also understand why they take revenge on Himmelstoss and Kantorek (Chapters 3 and 7). We even get a certain kick out of what they do, understanding their need to take out their disappointment on someone they know. These situations are, in miniature, an acting out of the bitter anger and disillusionment Paul feels when he says in Chapter 10, It must all be lies and of no account when the culture of a thousand years could not prevent this stream of blood being poured out. 3. FRIENDSHIP: THE ONLY ENDURING VALUE The theme of comradeship occurs often and gives the novel both lighthearted and sad moments. In Chapter 5 its easy to overlook how the farmer felt about having his property stolen and to chuckle aloud when Paul is struggling to capture the goose! We appreciate the circle of warmth that encloses him and Kat that night as they slowly cook and eat the goose, and then extend their warm circle by sharing the leftovers with Kropp and Tjaden. In Chapter 10 we enjoy their sharing of the pancakes and roast pig and fine club chairs at the supply dump, and we understand why Paul fakes a high temperature to go to the same hospital as Albert Kropp. Friendship emerges as an even more important theme at the front. In Chapters 10 and 11 we see men helping wounded comrades at great personal risk- or even, like Lieutenant Bertinck, dying for their friends. The handing on of Kemmerichs fine yellow leather boots also acts as a symbol of friendship- a symbol we can almost touch, and one that keeps us aware of how deeply a soldier feels the loss of each of his special friends. We can understand how hearing the voices of friends when one is lost (Chapter 9) or even just hearing their breathing during the night (Chapter 11) can keep a soldier going. We grieve with Paul and a lmost put down the book when Kat dies. 4. A GENERATION DESTROYED BY WORLD WAR I Taking all of the themes together and adding Paul and his friends hopeless discussions of what is left for them to do after the war (Chapter 5), we can conclude that Remarque succeeds in his main theme: showing that Pauls generation was destroyed by the Great War, as World War I was then called. CharacterIn the case of All Quiet, Paul is young and immature. Until he enlisted, he had never experienced real pain or tragedy in his life. Older people generally know from experience that human beings can survive incredible pain and still find meaning in life. Paul hasnt had any time to gain that kind of experience to sustain him. Therefore its asking quite a bit to have us accept, from him, whole theories about war and life and the nature of human beings. Still, whatever Paul might lack in age or experience is balanced for us by the honesty and sensitivity we see in him. Over all, then, in All Quiet on the Wes tern Front, the advantages of first person narration outweigh the disadvantages. There is a perfect fit of first person point of view with what Remarque wanted to say about World War I- that it destroyed a whole generation of the young. How better to show us that than to let us experience the war through the eyes of a young soldier? Remarque is proposing the view that human existence can no longer be regarded as having any ultimate meaning. Baumer and his comrades cannot make sense of the world at large for the simple reason that it is no longer possible to do so, not just for this group of ordinary soldiers, but for a substantial proportion of his entire generation. Remarque refuses to lull his reader into a false sense of security, into thinking that God is in his heaven and all is right with the world. The Destructiveness of WarThis is a major theme of this novel. Throughout this book, the men are exposed to limbs being blown off, blood flow everywhere, and innocent men dying in pain and agony. When they take shelter, bombs explode around them and they observe men squirm in order to save themselves. The destructive power of war is so great that even the fundamental difference between life and death become blurred. READ: Breaking Down The Metamorphosis Essay ComradesThe theme of comraderie, or friendship, occurs constantly in the novel. The friendship held within Pauls company keeps them from being driven insane by the horrors that surround them. These young men were brought to fight on the battlefield almost directly from the schoolyard. AlienationAt first Paul and his friends still behave as if their lives will someday return to normal. In the middle of the book, Paul goes home on leave, only to discover that his real home is now with his friends on the front. By that time, Kat dies, and Paul geels that his own life no longer has meaning. Although Paul comes to think of his comrades as brothers, he also learns that all men are brothers under their skin. The irony of war is that brothers are forced to kill each other. Paul expresses this theme when he showed compassion for the captured Russian soldiers and the French soldier he kills in the trench.hough Paul comes to think of his comrades as brothers, he also learns that all men are brothers under their skin. The irony of war is that brothers are forced to kill each other. Pauls expresses this theme when he showed compassion for the captured Russian soldiers and the French soldier he kills in the trench.